Table of Contents |
| About the Author | xi |
| Preface | xiii |
| Acknowledgements | xv |
I. | Functional Principle of Radio Receivers | 1 |
I.1. | Some History to Start | 1 |
I.1.1. | Resonance Receivers, Fritters, Coherers, and Square-Law Detectors (Detector Receivers) | 1 |
I.1.2. | Development of the Audion | 2 |
I.2. | Present-Day Concepts | 4 |
I.2.1. | Single-Conversion Superhet | 4 |
I.2.2. | Multiple-Conversion Superhet | 8 |
I.2.3. | Direct Mixer | 14 |
I.2.4. | Digital Receiver | 17 |
I.3. | Practical Example of an (A11-)Digital Radio Receiver | 23 |
I.3.1. | Functional Blocks for Digital Signal Processing | 25 |
I.3.2. | The A/D Converter as a Key Component | 26 |
I.3.3. | Conversion to Zero Frequency | 30 |
I.3.4. | Accuracy and Reproducibility | 33 |
I.3.5. | VFO for Frequency Tuning | 34 |
I.3.6. | Other Required Hardware | 36 |
I.3.7. | Receive Frequency Expansion by Subsampling | 37 |
I.4. | Practical Example of a Portable Wideband Radio Receiver | 39 |
I.4.1. | Analog RF Frontend for a Wide Receive Frequency Range | 40 |
I.4.2. | Subsequent Digital Signal Processing | 42 |
I.4.3. | Demodulation with Received Signal Level Measurement | 43 |
I.4.4. | Spectral Resolution of the Frequency Occupancy | 45 |
| References | 46 |
| Further Reading | 48 |
II. | Fields of Use and Applications of Radio Receivers | 49 |
II.1. | Prologue | 49 |
II.2. | Wireless Telecontrol | 50 |
II.2.1. | Radio Ripple Control | 52 |
II.3. | Non-Public Radio Services | 54 |
II.3.1. | Air Traffic Radio | 54 |
II.3.2. | Maritime Radio | 56 |
II.3.3. | Land Radio | 58 |
II.3.4. | Amateur Radio | 60 |
II.3.5. | Mobile Radio | 63 |
II.4. | Radio Intelligence, Radio Surveillance | 64 |
II.4.1. | Numerous Signal Types | 64 |
II.4.2. | Searching and Detecting | 69 |
II.4.3. | Monitoring Emissions | 75 |
II.4.4. | Classifying and Analyzing Radio Scenarios | 78 |
II.4.5. | Receiver Versus Spectrum Analyzer | 81 |
II.5. | Direction Finding and Radio Localization | 83 |
II.5.1. | Basic Principles of Radio Direction Finding | 83 |
II.5.2. | Radio Reconnaissance and Radio Surveillance | 94 |
II.5.3. | Aeronautical Navigation and Air Traffic Control | 98 |
II.5.4. | Marine Navigation and Maritime Traffic | 100 |
II.6. | Terrestrial Radio Broadcast Reception | 101 |
II.7. | Time Signal Reception | 104 |
II.8. | Modern Radio Frequency Usage and Frequency Economy | 101 |
II.8.1. | Trunked Radio Networks | 107 |
II.8.2. | Cognitive Radio | 108 |
| References | 109 |
| Further Reading | 112 |
III. | Receiver Characteristics and their Measurement | 113 |
III.1. | Objectives and Benefits | 113 |
III.2. | Preparations for Metrological Investigations | 114 |
III.2.1. | The Special Case of Correlative Noise Suppression | 115 |
III.2.2. | The Special Case of Digital Radio Standards | 116 |
III.3. | Receiver Input Matching and Input Impedance | 118 |
III.3.1. | Measuring Impedance and Matching | 120 |
III.3.2. | Measuring Problems | 121 |
III.4. | Sensitivity | 121 |
III.4.1. | Limitations Set by Physics | 122 |
III.4.2. | Noise Factor and Noise Figure | 123 |
III.4.3. | Measuring the Noise Figure | 125 |
III.4.4. | Equivalent Noise Bandwidth | 127 |
III.4.5. | Minimum Discernible Signal | 129 |
III.4.6. | Measuring the Minimum Discernible Signal | 130 |
III.4.7. | Input Noise Voltage | 131 |
III.4.8. | Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) and Operational Sensitivity (S+N)/N, SINAD | 132 |
III.4.9. | De-emphasis | 136 |
III.4.10. | Usable and Suitable Sensitivity | 138 |
III.4.11. | Maximum Signal-to-Interference Ratio | 144 |
III.4.12. | Measuring the Operational Sensitivity and Maximum SIR | 145 |
III.4.13. | Measuring Problems | 147 |
III.5. | Spurious Reception | 147 |
III.5.1. | Origin of Inherent Spurious Response | 147 |
III.5.2. | Measuring Inherent Spurious Response | 148 |
III.5.3. | Reception and Suppression of Image Frequencies | 149 |
III.5.4. | IF Interference and IF Interference Ratio | 151 |
III.5.5. | Reception of Other Interfering Signals | 152 |
III.5.6. | Measuring the Spurious Signal Reception | 153 |
III.5.7. | The Special Case of Linear Crosstalk | 153 |
III.5.8. | Measuring the Linear Crosstalk Suppression | 154 |
III.5.9. | Measuring Problems | 155 |
III.6. | Near Selectivity | 156 |
III.6.1. | Receive Bandwidth and Shape Factor | 157 |
III.6.2. | Measuring the Receive Bandwidth | 158 |
III.6.3. | Adjacent Channel Suppression | 160 |
III.6.4. | Measuring the Adjacent Channel Suppression | 160 |
III.6.5. | Measuring Problems | 161 |
III.7. | Reciprocal Mixing | 162 |
III.7.1. | Single Sideband Noise | 162 |
III.7.2. | Non-Harmonic (Close to Carrier) Distortions | 166 |
III.7.3. | Sensitivity Reduction by Reciprocal Mixing | 166 |
III.7.4. | Measuring Reciprocal Mixing | 169 |
III.7.5. | Measuring Problems | 171 |
III.8. | Blocking | 171 |
III.8.1. | Compression in the RF Frontend or the IF Section | 171 |
III.8.2. | AGC Response to Interfering Signals | 172 |
III.8.3. | Reduction of Signal-to-Interference Ratio by Blocking | 172 |
III.8.4. | Measuring the Blocking Effect | 173 |
III.8.5. | Measuring Problems | 174 |
III.9. | Intermodulation | 174 |
III.9.1. | Origin of Intermodulation | 174 |
III.9.2. | Second-and Third-Order Intermodulation | 175 |
III.9.3. | Higher Order Intermodulation | 181 |
III.9.4. | The Special Case of Electromechanical, Ceramic and Quartz Filters | 182 |
III.9.5. | The Special Case of A/D Converted and Digitally Processed Signals | 183 |
III.9.6. | Intermodulation Immunity | 185 |
III.9.7. | Maximum Intermodulation-Limited Dynamic Range | 185 |
III.9.8. | Intercept Point | 186 |
III.9.9. | Effective Intercept Point (Receiver Factor or...) | 187 |
III.9.10. | Measuring the Intermodulation Immunity | 188 |
III.9.11. | Measuring Problems | 190 |
III.9.12. | In-band Intermodulation and Non-Linear Crosstalk | 195 |
III.9.13. | Measurement of the In-band Intermodulation | 198 |
III.10. | Cross-Modulation | 199 |
III.10.1. | Generation | 199 |
III.10.2. | Ionospheric Cross-Modulation | 201 |
III.10.3. | Measuring the Cross-Modulation Immunity | 203 |
III.10.4. | Measuring Problems | 204 |
III.11. | Quality Factor of Selective RF Preselectors under Operating Conditions | 204 |
III.11.1. | Increasing the Dynamic Range by High-Quality Preselection | 205 |
III.11.2. | Measuring the Frequency Response | 207 |
III.12. | Large-Signal Behaviour in General | 209 |
III.12.1. | Concrete Example | 209 |
III.12.2. | The IP3 Interpretation Fallacy | 212 |
III.13. | Audio Reproduction Properties | 213 |
III.13.1. | AF Frequency Response | 213 |
III.13.2. | Measuring the AF Frequency Response | 214 |
III.13.3. | Reproduction Quality and Distortions | 214 |
III.13.4. | Measuring the Demodulation Harmonic Distortion | 217 |
III.13.5. | Measuring Problems | 218 |
III.14. | Behaviour of the Automatic Gain Control (AGC) | 218 |
III.14.1. | Static Control Behaviour | 218 |
III.14.2. | Measuring the Static Control Behaviour | 219 |
III.14.3. | Time-Dynamic Control Behaviour | 219 |
III.14.4. | Measuring the Time-Dynamic Control Behaviour | 221 |
III.15. | Long-Term Frequency Stability | 223 |
III.15.1. | Measuring the Long-Term Frequency Stability | 224 |
III.15.2. | Measuring Problems | 225 |
III.16. | Characteristics of the Noise Squelch | 226 |
III.16.1. | Measuring the Squelch Threshold | 227 |
III.17. | Receiver Stray Radiation | 227 |
III.17.1. | Measuring the Receiver Stray Radiation | 229 |
III.17.2. | Measuring Problems | 230 |
III.18. | (Relative) Receive Signal Strength and S Units | 230 |
III.18.1. | Definitions and Predetermined Levels of S Units | 233 |
III.18.2. | Measuring the Accuracy of the Relative Signal Strength Indication | 234 |
III.18.3. | Measuring Problems | 234 |
III.19. | AM Suppression in the F3E Receiving Path | 236 |
III.19.1. | Measuring the AM Suppression | 237 |
III.20. | Scanning Speed in Search Mode | 238 |
III.20.1. | Measuring the Scanning Speed | 239 |
| References | 240 |
| Further Reading | 242 |
IV. | Practical Evaluation of Radio Receivers (A Model) | 245 |
IV.1. | Factual Situation | 245 |
IV.2. | Objective Evaluation of Characteristics in Practical Operation | 245 |
IV.2.1. | Hardly Equal Conditions | 247 |
IV.2.2. | No Approximation Possible | 247 |
IV.3. | Information Gained in Practical Operation | 249 |
IV.3.1. | Help of a Reference Unit | 252 |
IV.3.2. | A Fine Distinction is Hardly Possible or Necessary | 253 |
IV.4. | Interpretation (and Contents of the 'Table of operational PRACTICE') | 253 |
IV.4.1. | The Gain in Information | 254 |
IV.5. | Specific Equipment Details | 255 |
| References | 255 |
| Further Reading | 255 |
V. | Concluding Information | 257 |
V.1. | Cascade of Noisy Two-Ports (Overall Noise Performance) | 257 |
V.2. | Cascade of Intermodulating Two-Ports (Overall Intermodulation Performance) | 260 |
V.2.1. | Overall Third-Order Intercept Point | 261 |
V.2.2. | Overall Second-Order Intercept Point | 262 |
V.2.3. | Computer-Aided Calculations | 263 |
V.3. | Mathematical Description of the Intermodulation Formation | 264 |
V.3.1. | Second-Order Intermodulation | 265 |
V.3.2. | Third-Order Intermodulation | 266 |
V.3.3. | Other Terms in the Transfer Characteristic Polynomial | 267 |
V.4. | Mixing and Derivation of Spurious Reception | 269 |
V.4.1. | Mixing = Multiplication | 269 |
V.4.2. | Ambiguous Mixing Process | 271 |
V.5. | Characteristics of Emission Classes According to the ITU RR | 272 |
V.6. | Geographic Division of the Earth by Region According to ITU RR | 272 |
V.7. | Conversion of dB...Levels | 272 |
V.7.1. | Voltage, Current and Power Levels | 276 |
V.7.2. | Electric and Magnetic Field Strength, (Power) Flux Density Levels | 278 |
| References | 278 |
| Further Reading | 279 |
| List of Tables | 281 |
| Index | 283 |