Introduction -- The constitutional convention: The president's limited power -- George Washington: A culture of openness -- Woodrow Wilson: A foundation for secret government -- Harry Truman: Institutional secrecy -- Lyndon Johnson: Stealth attacks on openness -- Gerald Ford: A time of reckoning -- George W. Bush: A test of the limits -- Barack Obama: A twenty-first-century bargain? -- Conclusion
Summary
How presidents use secrecy to protect the nation, foster diplomacy, and gain power Ever since the nation's most important secret meeting-the Constitutional Convention-presidents have struggled to balance open, accountable government with necessary secrecy in military affairs and negotiations. For the first one hundred and twenty years, a culture of open government persisted, but new threats and technology have long since shattered the old bargains. Today, presidents neither protect vital information nor provide the open debate Americans expect. Mary Graham tracks the rise in governmental sec
