Title Proportional liability : analytical and comparative perspectives / Israel Gilead, Michael D. Green, Bernhard A. Koch (eds) ; with contributions by Bjarte Askeland [and 22 others]

Published Berlin : De Gruyter, [2013]

Table of Contents
	General Report: Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Report / Bernhard A. Koch					1
I.	Introduction					1
1.	Meaning and Definition of Proportional Liability in the Project					1
2.	Causal Proportional Liability Contrasted with Proportional Liability Among Multiple Tortfeasors Based on Contributory (Comparative) Negligence					3
3.	The Aim of This Project					4
4.	Structure					8
II.	Categories of Proportional Liability					10
1.	Why Categorize?					10
2.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					12
A.	Sub-category A1 - àlternative liability' - indeterminate tortfeasors					12
B.	Sub-category A2 - ̀market-share liability' - causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims					13
C.	Sub-category A3 - ̀pollution or drug cases' - indeterminate victims					13
D.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The hard case'					14
E.	Sub-category A5 - ̀lost chances'					14
3.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					15
A.	Sub-category B1 - all parts of P's harm were caused by liable Ds					15
B.	Sub-category B2 - some parts of P's harm were caused by other factors					16
4.	Category C - Unrealized Risks with Potential for Future Harms					16
5.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					17
III.	Policy Considerations					17
IV.	Burden and Standard of Proof					20
V.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					22
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					23
A.	Analysis					23
B.	A1 cases in comparison					25
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					26
A.	Analysis					26
B.	A2 cases in comparison					30
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					31
A.	Analysis					31
B.	A3 cases in comparison					34
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					35
A.	Analysis					35
B.	A4 cases in comparison					38
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					39
A.	Analysis					39
B.	A5 cases in comparison					43
VI.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					44
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					45
A.	Analysis					45
B.	B1 cases in comparison					47
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					48
A.	Analysis					48
B.	B2 cases in comparison					49
VII.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					50
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					51
A.	Analysis					51
B.	C1 cases in comparison					52
2.	Sub-Category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					54
A.	Analysis					54
B.	C2 cases in comparison					55
VIII.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					56
1.	On the meaning of combination cases					56
2.	How to cope with ̀combination cases'					57
IX.	Summary and Conclusions					58
1.	How to Approach CPL Issues?					59
2.	The Relevant Factual Effects of CPL					59
3.	Normative Considerations					61
4.	On the Cautious Monitored Development of CPL					62
5.	On the Comparative Landscape					64
6.	On Future Developments					66
	Categories of Proportional Liability					69
Category A	Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					69
Sub-category A1	Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					69
Sub-category A2	M̀arket-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					69
Sub-category A3	P̀ollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					70
Sub-category A4	T̀he Hard Case'					70
Sub-category A5	The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					71
Category B	Indeterminate Parts of Harm					71
Sub-category B1	Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					71
Sub-category B2	Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					72
Category C	Risks of Future Harm					72
Sub-category C1	Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					73
Sub-category C2	Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					73
Category D	C̀ombination Cases'					73
	Country Reports
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Austria / Bernhard A. Koch					77
I.	Standard of Proof					77
II.	The Discussion of Proportional Liability in Austria					79
A.	The Starting Point - Multiple Tortfeasors under the ABGB					79
B.	Alternative Causes					80
1.	Alternative External Causes					80
2.	Alternative External Causes Competing with Risks within the Victim's own Sphere					83
C.	Other Instances of Causal Uncertainty					87
1.	Alternative Victims					87
2.	Minimal Causation					88
3.	Loss of a Chance					88
4.	Market-Share Liability					90
D.	The Two Drafts of a Tort Law Reform - One Step Forward and Two Steps Back					90
III.	The Case Hypotheticals from an Austrian Perspective					92
A.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					92
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					92
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					92
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution of Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					93
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					93
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					93
B.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					94
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					94
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					95
C.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					95
D.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					96
IV.	Summary					96
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the Czech Republic / Jiri Hradek					99
I.	Definition of Proportional Liability					99
A.	Introduction					99
B.	Legal Provisions of Substantive Law					99
1.	Provisions on Multiple Tortfeasors					99
2.	Causation					101
3.	Provisions on Proportional Liability					104
II.	Policy Consideration					105
III.	Burden of Proof					106
A.	Legal Provisions					106
B.	Possible Changes					108
IV.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					110
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					110
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					111
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					111
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					113
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					113
V.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					114
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					114
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					115
VI.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					116
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					116
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					116
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Denmark / Vibe Ulfbeck					117
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in England and Wales / Ken Oliphant					121
I.	Introduction					121
	Meaning of ̀Proportional Liability'					121
II.	Proportional Liability: The Fairchild Exception					122
A.	Starting Points					122
B.	Orthodox Approach to Alternative Causes					123
C.	Fairchild and beyond					124
III.	The Categories of Proportional Liability					128
A.	Alternative Liability (Unidentified Tortfeasor)					128
B.	M̀arket-Share Liability' (A Closed Set of Tortfeasors and Victims)					128
C.	Pollution and Drug Cases (Unidentified Victim)					129
D.	Increased Risk					130
E.	The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					131
F.	Certain Causation - Uncertain Extent (Only Tortious Causes)					134
G.	Certain Causation - Uncertain Extent (Tortious and Non-Tortious Causes)					135
H.	Causal Uncertainty as to Future Harm					136
IV.	Concluding Remarks					139
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in France / Olivier Moreteau					141
I.	Introduction					141
II.	Burden and Standard of Proof					141
III.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					143
1.	Sub-Category A4 - A5: The ̀Hard Case' and Lost Chances					143
2.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					144
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					147
4.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					147
IV.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					148
V.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					150
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					151
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					151
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Germany / Ulrich Magnus					153
I.	Definition of Proportional Liability					153
II.	Categories of Proportional Liability					155
III.	Policy Considerations					155
1.	Deterrence					156
2.	Justice/Fairness					157
3.	Reduction of Administrative Costs					158
4.	Further Policy Considerations					158
IV.	Burden of Proof					158
1.	In General					158
2.	Standard of Proof					159
V.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					160
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate - Tortfeasor					160
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					161
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					162
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					162
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					163
VI.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					163
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					163
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					164
VII.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					164
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					164
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					164
VIII.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					165
IX.	Conclusions					165
1.	In General					165
2.	The Relevant Factual Effects of Proportional Liability					165
(a).	Gainers and Losers					165
(b).	Effect on Incentives					166
(c).	Number of Suits					167
(d).	Costs of Suits					167
(e).	Informational Difficulties					168
(f).	Distribution of Probabilities					168
(g).	Degree of Fault					168
(h).	Degree of Uncertainty					168
3.	Policy Considerations					168
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Greece / Eugenia Dacoronia					171
I.	Introduction					171
	General Definition					171
II.	Policy Considerations					173
III.	Burden and Standard of Proof					173
IV.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					174
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					174
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					175
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					176
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					177
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					178
V.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					179
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					179
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					179
VI.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					180
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					180
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					181
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Israel / Israel Gilead					183
I.	Introduction					183
II.	The Malul Case					183
III.	Burden and Standard of Proof					185
IV.	Categorisation					186
V.	Policy Considerations					187
VI.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					188
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					188
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					189
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					190
4.	Sub-Categories A4 and A5 - ̀Hard Cases' and ̀Lost Chances'					191
	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					192
	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					193
VII.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					194
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					194
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					195
VIII.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					196
IX.	Concluding Remarks					197
	Proportional Liability in Uncertain Settings: Is it Precautionary? Italian Insights and Comparative Policy Considerations / Luca Nocco					199
I.	In Search of a Definition for Proportional Liability					199
A.	Introduction					199
B.	The Standard of Proof					201
C.	Reasons to Introduce a Rule of Proportional Liability and Policy Related Implications					203
II.	In Search of Instances for Proportional Liability					206
A.	The First Category of Proportional Liability (and Tools Aiming to Achieve Similar Objectives): Uncertainty Regarding the Link Between Defendant's Conduct and Harm					206
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					206
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					211
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					212
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					212
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					213
B.	Some Insights on Proportional Liability and Uncertainty					215
C.	The Second Category of Proportional Liability: Indeterminate Parts of Harm					219
D.	The Third Category of Proportional Liability: Uncertain Materialisation of Risk					220
III.	In Search of a Reasonable Proportional Liability Rule for Uncertain Settings					223
	Going Dutch: How to Address Cases of Causal Uncertainty / Anne L.M. Keirse					227
I.	Preface					227
II.	An All-or-Nothing External Liability Paired with an Internal Proportional Apportionment					228
III.	The Reversal of the Burden of Proof					232
IV.	The Theory of the Loss of a Chance: A Step Closer towards Accepting Proportional Liability					232
V.	Proportional Liability: No Longer an Ìnternal Matter'					235
VI.	Proportional Liability Confirmed					240
VII.	Follow-up case law					242
VIII.	Concluding Remarks					245
	Annex: Short answers to the cases from a Dutch perspective					246
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Norway / Bjarte Askeland					249
	Existing Solutions to the Various Categories					251
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Poland / Ewa Baginska					253
I.	Introduction					253
II.	General Remarks on Causation and Burden of Proof in Polish Law					254
A.	Causation					254
B.	Burden of Proof					256
III.	The Way to the Coronation of the Rule of Joint and Several Liability in Polish Law					259
A.	The Rise and Fall of Proportional Liability in Polish Law					259
B.	The Main Characteristics of Joint and Several Liability					261
IV.	Possible Application of Proportional Liability - Specific Categories					262
A.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					262
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					262
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					264
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					265
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					266
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					268
B.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					270
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					270
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					273
C.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					274
D.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					276
V.	Final Observations					278
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in South Africa / Johann Neethling					283
I.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					283
A.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					283
B.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					285
C.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					286
D.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					287
E.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					288
II.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					289
A.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					289
B.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					290
III.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					292
A.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					292
B.	Sub-category C2 Extent of Euture Harm Uncertain					292
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Spain / Josep Sole					295
I.	Introduction					295
A.	The proof of causation under Spanish Law					295
B.	Procedural means to overcome uncertainty					296
C.	The notion of ̀proportional liability' in current Spanish law					297
D.	Policy considerations in the Spanish debate					299
II.	Categories of proportional liability					300
A.	Uncertainty about past harm					300
1.	Indeterminate tortfeasors (àlternative liability')					300
2.	Causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims (̀market-share liability')					304
3.	Indeterminate Victim (̀Pollution or Drug Cases')					306
4.	The ̀Hard Case' category					306
5.	The ̀Loss of Chance' Doctrine					309
B.	Indeterminate Parts of Harm					312
1.	All the parts of the harm-were caused by a group of tortious defendants					312
2.	Part of the harm caused by contributory negligence of the victim or by a non-tortious factor					314
C.	Unrealised risks of future harm					315
D.	Combination cases					317
III.	Final remarks					318
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Switzerland / Benedict Winiger					323
I.	Definition of Proportional Liability					323
II.	Categories of Proportional Liability					325
III.	Policy Considerations					326
IV.	Burden and Standard of Proof					328
V.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					330
1.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					330
2.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					331
3.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					332
4.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					333
5.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					333
VI.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					336
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					336
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					337
VII.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					337
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					337
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					338
VIII.	Category D - ̀Combination Cases'					339
IX.	Conclusions					340
	Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the US / Michael D. Green					343
I.	Burden and Standard of Proof					343
II.	The Meaning of Proportional Liability					343
III.	Scholarly Treatment of Proportional Liability in the US					344
IV.	Policy Considerations					351
V.	The Categories of Proportional Liability					353
A.	Category A - Uncertain Causes of Past Harm					353
1.	Introduction					353
2.	Sub-category A1 - Àlternative Liability' - Indeterminate Tortfeasor					356
3.	Sub-category A2 - ̀Market-share Liability' - Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims					357
4.	Sub-category A3 - ̀Pollution or Drug Cases' - Indeterminate Victims					357
5.	Sub-category A4 - ̀The Hard Case'					360
6.	Sub-category A5 - The ̀Lost Chance' Doctrine					362
B.	Category B - Indeterminate Parts of Harm					365
1.	Sub-category B1 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors					365
2.	Sub-category B2 - Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors					367
C.	Category C - Risks of Future Harm					368
1.	Sub-category C1 - Future Harm Uncertain Entirely					368
2.	Sub-category C2 - Extent of Future Harm Uncertain					369
	List of Contributors					371
	Index					373

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Description 1 online resource (xix, 376 pages) Series Tort and Insurance Law ; Vol 33 Tort and insurance law ; v. 33. Contents General Report: Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Report; I. Introduction; 1. Meaning and Definition of Proportional Liability in the Project; 2. Causal Proportional Liability Contrasted with Proportional Liability Among Multiple Tortfeasors Based on Contributory (Comparative) Negligence; 3. The Aim of This Project; 4. Structure; II. Categories of Proportional Liability; 1. Why Categorize?; 2. Category A -- Uncertain Causes of Past Harm; A. Sub-category A1 -- 'alternative liability' -- indeterminate tortfeasors B. Sub-category A2 -- 'market-share liability' -- causally unrelated tortfeasors and victimsC. Sub-category A3 -- 'pollution or drug cases' -- indeterminate victims; D. Sub-category A4 -- 'The hard case'; E. Sub-category A5 -- 'lost chances'; 3. Category B -- Indeterminate Parts of Harm; A. Sub-category B1 -- all parts of P's harm were caused by liable Ds; B. Sub-category B2 -- some parts of P's harm were caused by other factors; 4. Category C -- Unrealized Risks with Potential for Future Harms; 5. Category D -- 'Combination Cases'; III. Policy Considerations; IV. Burden and Standard of Proof v. Category A -- Uncertain Causes of Past Harm1. Sub-category A1 -- 'Alternative Liability' -- Indeterminate Tortfeasor; A. Analysis; B. A1 cases in comparison; 2. Sub-category A2 -- 'Market-share Liability' -- Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims; A. Analysis; B. A2 cases in comparison; 3. Sub-category A3 -- 'Pollution or Drug Cases' -- Indeterminate Victims; A. Analysis; B. A3 cases in comparison; 4. Sub-category A4 -- 'The Hard Case'; A. Analysis; B. A4 cases in comparison; 5. Sub-category A5 -- The 'Lost Chance' Doctrine; A. Analysis; B. A5 cases in comparison VI. Category B -- Indeterminate Parts of Harm1. Sub-category B1 -- Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors; A. Analysis; B. B1 cases in comparison; 2. Sub-category B2 -- Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors; A. Analysis; B. B2 cases in comparison; VII. Category C -- Risks of Future Harm; 1. Sub-category C1 -- Future Harm Uncertain Entirely; A. Analysis; B. C1 cases in comparison; 2. Sub-Category C2 -- Extent of Future Harm Uncertain; A. Analysis; B. C2 cases in comparison; VIII. Category D -- 'Combination Cases'; 1. On the meaning of combination cases 2. How to cope with 'combination cases'IX. Summary and Conclusions; 1. How to Approach CPL Issues?; 2. The Relevant Factual Effects of CPL; 3. Normative Considerations; 4. On the Cautious Monitored Development of CPL; 5. On the Comparative Landscape; 6. On Future Developments; Categories of Proportional Liability; Category A -- Uncertain Causes of Past Harm; Sub-category A1 -- 'Alternative Liability' -- Indeterminate Tortfeasor; Sub-category A2 -- 'Market-share Liability' -- Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims; Sub-category A3 -- 'Pollution or Drug Cases' -- Indeterminate Victims Sub-category A4 -- 'The Hard Case' Summary Courts have, traditionally, required the plaintiff to prove to the requisite standard of proof that causation exists. This monograph addresses what has, to date, been a modest reform toward permitting recovery based on a probability that causation exists, discounting the damages awarded by the probability of causation. The central purpose of our inquiry is to employ a comparative methodology to better understand how different legal systems respond to causal uncertainty and to examine why, how and in what situations rules of proportional liability can promote the goals of tort law Analysis Tort Law Bibliography Includes bibliographical references and index Notes In English Print version record Subject Liability (Law) Torts -- United States LAW -- Administrative Law & Regulatory Practice. Torts Liability (Law) United States Form Electronic book Author Gilʻad, Yiśraʼel. Green, Michael D., 1950- Koch, Bernhard A. Askeland, Bjarte. ISBN 9783110282580 3110282585

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